Category: Techies

Predictive Maintenance for Public Transport Assets

I – Background Information 

The ever-increasing population in cities across the world increases the pressure and expectation of the availability and punctuality of public transport services. Thus, consequences associated with unexpected incidents, involving transport assets, include high repair costs and major disruptions to the entire transport network, ultimately having a detrimental effect on the business. The identification and implementation of an appropriate maintenance strategy can help in the optimization of maintenance planning and scheduling, decrease rolling stock downtime, and increase the life expectancy of assets such as trams.  

 

The main maintenance strategies today rely mostly on preventive maintenance as well as on condition maintenance, however, although still relevant, preventive maintenance typically results in over maintaining assets and high cost. It is subsequently of high interest to increase the use of advanced maintenance strategies and reduce reactive maintenance events. Thus, allowing more time to respond which in turn enables greater flexibility to dynamically plan an appropriate maintenance strategy and decrease cost. 

The goal of this project was to provide precise and reliable predictions to optimize planning and downtime maintenance of trams using data from a wheel measurement device. 

II – Data Pre-processing 

The first task in any data science project consists of transforming raw data into a more understandable format. To better understand the state of the data, and to determine the information that is usable, a quality assessment is first conducted.  

The quality assessment enables us to identify missing values/measurements, corrupted values, incoherent values, and duplicate values.  

This quality assessment is followed by a data cleaning process to remove the flawed measurements/values. In this project, we removed over 50% of the data at hand due to missing and incoherent values. Furthermore, duplicates were removed along with outliers. For the removal of outliers, we used the Z-score metric, where we calculate the Z-score for every single target value (the measurement we want to predict) and remove the values for which the z-score is above a certain threshold.  

The Z-score, also known as the standard score, measures the number of standard deviations an element is from the population mean. The Z-score is negative if a given element is below the mean, and positive if it is above the mean. Logically the closer the Z-score to zero, the closer a given element is to the mean of the population. In this project, the Z-score is calculated to determine which measurements for a unique tram wheel are outliers and need to be rejected from the data set. Subsamples for each unique tram wheel are created to calculate the Z-score for the given measurements and a carefully fixed threshold allows us to reject any observation that differs greatly from the population mean. 

Lastly, part of the of the preprocessing task is to integrate metadata, from different sources, that may help us understand the behavior of the data we initially have. When integrating data from multiple sources it Is of high importance to define a schema, which all data must respect, in order to maintain consistency and compatibility. 

III – Data Exploration/Analysis 

Once the preprocessing step is complete, the next step is to explore the data using visualization tools, and summarizing functions.  

For example, we could visualize the trends in wheel measurements over time along with various weather measurements.  

In addition, we calculated summary statistics such as the median, average, standard deviation of the variables in the data set, as well as the average wheel deterioration pre-covid19 lockdown restrictions and during covid19 lockdown restrictions imposed throughout Europe. Knowing some trams serviced at the same rate during the lockdown compared to pre-lockdown, we took advantage of this unprecedented period to investigate the effect the passenger load has on the deterioration of the wheels. 

Another step to better understand the data, is to understand the relationship between the variables we possess. Specifically, the relationship between the target variable and the remaining variables in the dataset. There exists several different correlation statistics, such as the Pearson correlation, the Kendall correlation, Spearman correlations, each having their own perks. In this project, we decided to use the Pearson correlation, as we look to measure the relationship between the wheel measurement variable and subsequent linearly related variables.  

As a side note, the Pearson correlation coefficient yields values between -1 and 1, meaning the closer the coefficient is to -/+1 the higher the degree of association between the two variables. On the other hand, a coefficient equal to 0 indicates no relationship between the two variables. 

Furthermore, correlation coefficients enable us to reduce the number of input variables, by selecting the variables with the strongest relationship with the target variable and are believed to be most useful when developing a predictive model. As we reduce the number of variables used to predict the target variable, we also reduce the computational cost of the model. 

IV – Model Build : 

Train test split: 

Since we are dealing with time series data, any random sampling approach, to select instances from the population to compute the expected performance, should be avoided. These approaches assume that the instances, in this case the measurements, are independent. However, the wheel measurements at a time t are highly dependent on the previous measurements at time t − 1. Applying a random sampling approach to evaluate our model would overestimate the performance of the model and lead us to a false confidence state. This problem is solved by creating subsets of the data to generate training and validation sets. The training set therefore contains 80% of data, according to the timestamp of the measurements, and the validation set contains the remaining 20%. 

Evaluation method: 

In such a practical application as this project, it is fundamental that the results are accurately evaluated. As the goal is to forecast the wear and tear of rolling stock assets, which ultimately leads to maintenance planning, the performance of the predictions must be measured in an effective manner. This is paramount in avoiding maintenance shortfall or unnecessary maintenance, which could in turn lead to higher costs. Furthermore, it is paramount to determine a suitable evaluation metric for the given problem. As we are dealing with a regression task, we want to measure the differences between the predicted values and the observed values. For this purpose, &. The RMSE corresponds to the quadratic mean of the differences between the observed values and the predicted values.  

V- Results : 

 

Ablation study: 

 

To understand the behavior of the predictive model, and the importance of certain features, an ablation study was conducted. An ablation study consists of removing a feature from the model to access the effect it has on the performance. By removing certain features one by one, we’re able to understand the importance they have in the construction of the predictive model, and to identify which features could ultimately be left out.  

 

SHAP values: 

 

Another way of discovering which features are the most important for the predictive model is to calculate the SHAP values. SHAP, Shapley Additive Explanations, is a method proposed by S.M.Lundberg and Su-In Lee for interpreting the predictions of complex models. This method attributes the change in the expected prediction to each feature when conditioning on the latter.  

The Figure below orders the features according to the sum of the SHAP value over all samples in the training set. This Figure shows the impact that the features have on the model output depending on the feature value. For example, a high value of ‘Feature 1’ lowers the predicted value. On the other hand, a high value of ‘Feature 13’ increases the predicted value.  

VI – Conclusion : 

The main benefits of predictive maintenance improve the overall day to day operations, especially in a fast-paced environment such as public transport. In the current context, the fruition of this project would enable the maintenance teams to integrate planning into a single platform. On one hand allowing them to visualize and interpret real time data, on a day to day operational actions, and on the other hand providing them with maintenance decision making based on state-of-the-art asset predictions. The development of such a platform yields the possibility for maintenance teams to visualize the predicted and forecasted deterioration and failures of assets and, suggest to users the correct course of action to take. 

More generally and in a larger context, as cities across the world rely deeply on public transport, reliability is at the forefront of transportation strategies. It is therefore of upmost importance that asset management is optimized through predictive maintenance. Through future predictions, transportation services can ensure maintenance is performed only when required before imminent failure, thus reducing unnecessary downtime of assets and costs associated with over-maintaining equipment. Preventing such failures limits the severity of damages to the assets and improves the life expectancy of equipment. This ability in turn provides optimal planning and storing for spare parts, rather than having an overabundance of stock. Lastly, predictive maintenance offers the opportunity to greatly reduce the number of incidents on the transport network, which in turn improves the all-important passenger safety and comfort. 

 

​Written by Magnus Kinder, Data Scientist @ Valkuren 

The recommender system in e-commerce

 

A recommender system is a filtering process which consists of suggesting relevant information to users. Rather than showing all possible information to a user at once. In the case of an online store, the purpose of a recommender system is to offer the customer, products or services, adapted to his profile. This process filters the information to a subset based on methods such as Collaborative filtering, Neighbour-based Collaborative filtering, and Content-based filtering. 

 

Collaborative filtering methods for recommender systems are methods that are solely based on past interactions recorded between users and items to yield new recommendations. The main idea is that past user-item interactions are sufficient to detect similar users and similar items to make predictions based on the estimated proximities. The main advantage of collaborative approaches is that they require no information about users or items and, so, they can be used in many situations. 

 

Content-based methods, on the other hand, use additional information about users and items. These methods try to construct a model based on the available features on the items, that justify the observed user-items interactions.

  

Several factors have influenced the use of recommender systems. The growth in digitalization, the increasing use of online platforms, and the abundance of online information has accentuated the importance for businesses and organizations to offer the right information, whether that be a product, a service or content, to the right user at the right time. Recommender systems meet this need, and have many benefits such as improve customer experience, not exclusively through relevant information, they additionally offer the correct advice and direction. Thus, engage and increase user interaction, and create the ability of tailoring and personalizing offers to users, which could ultimately lead to increase revenue depending on the business. 

 

At Valkuren, we implemented this recommender system for an e-commerce platform to optimize the consumer experience on our client’s website. We used the predictive method to improve the product offering to consumers based on their search using purchase history and estimated proximity.

 

Feel free to contact us for more detail!

 

 

How to carry out a data science project? (Part 2)

 

Step 4: Model Data

We could separate this “model data” step in 4 different steps: 

  

 

      1. The feature engineering is probably the most important step in the model creating process. The first thing to define is the term feature: are called feature the raw data as received by the learning model. The feature engineering is therefore, all the actions carried out on the raw data (clearing them, deleting null data, deleting aberrant data) before these data are taken into account by the algorithm, and thus the model. In summary, feature engineering is the extraction of raw data features that can be used to improve the performance of the machine learning algorithm
      2. The model training is the action of feeding the algorithms with datasets to start learning and improving them. The ability of machine learning models to handle large volumes of data can help manufacturers identify anomalies and test correlations while searching the entire data stream for models to develop candidate models.
      3. The model evaluation consists of assessing the created model through the output given by the model after having process data through the algorithm. The aim is to assess and validate the results given by the model. The model could be seen has a black box; you have the input that are given to the model algorithm (the dataset) in the model training and the output that are asses during the model evaluation. After having assess the results, you could optimize your model in the previous step.
      4. The model selection is the selection of the most performing and adapted model from the set of candidate model. This selection depends on the accuracy of the results given by the model. 

Step 5: Interpret results  

The main point about interpreting results is to represent and communicating results in a simple way. Indeed, after having process the previous step results could be heavy and hard to understand.

In order to make a good interpretation of your results, you have to go back to the first step of the data science life cycle that we have cover in our last article, to see if your results are related to the original purpose of the project and if they are any interest in addressing the basic problem. Another main point is to see if your results have sense. If they are and if you answer pertinently to the initial problematic, then you likely have come to a productive conclusion.  

Step 6 : Deployment

The deployment phase is the final phase of the project life cycle of a data science project. It consists in deploying the chosen model and applying new data to it. In other words, putting its predictions available to user or service system is known as deployment. 

Although the purpose of the model is to increase understanding of the data, the knowledge gained will need to be organized and presented in a way that the client can use and understand it. Depending on the needs, the deployment phase may be as simple as producing a report or as complex as implementing a reproducible scientific data process. 

By following these steps in your data science project process, you make better decisions for your business or government agency because your choices are backed by data that has been robustly collected and analysed. With practice, your data analysis gets faster and more accurate – meaning you make better, more informed decisions to run your organization most effectively. 

 

© Valkuren

How to carry out a data science project? (Part 1)

 

 

 

 

 

To be completed in a qualitative way, a data science project must follow a certain methodology  composed of 6 different steps. 

Step 1 : Project understanding  

In this step we’re looking to fully grasp the scope of the project and typically determine the following:  

      • The problem  
      • The potential solution(s)  
      • The necessary tools & techniques 

For this purpose, several questions could be asked: 

      • What is the objective of the project? 

      • How will this project add value? 

      • What data do we possess? What is the format of these data? 

      • Regression or classification problem? 

Step 2 : Data mining and processing 

In his own, this step is composed by 3 level:  

Data Mining: 

The data mining process identifies and extracts the useful information defined in Step 1. You have first to identify data sources, in a second step you have to access the storage space and in a third time you have to retrieved relevant data.  

Quality assessment:  

Having the data is not all, it is necessary to check them and judge their reliability. In this aim, you have to determine which data are usable data, if there is any missing or corrupt value. And you have to check also the consistency of the data. In other word, this step help to check the veracity of the data that are given, to find if there is any error. You can check it thanks to statistical tools, like QQ plot.  

Data cleaning:  

Real world data is often noisy & presents quality issues. The quality assessment step provides a clear overview of the discrepancies in the data. The data cleaning process deal with this discrepancy. This step has the aim to correct quality flaws, transform the data and remove those which are fault. 

Step 3: Data exploration  

Data exploration is the first step of the data analysis. The goal is to synthesize the main characteristics of these data. The purpose of this step isn’t to draw important conclusions, but to become familiar with the data, see general trends. It is also important for the detection of errors in the data. There is different pole in the data exploration: correlation analysis, descriptive statistics, data visualisation, dimensionality reduction. In each pole you can use different statistic tools as you can see in the diagram below.  

Manual or automatic methods are used to make data exploration. Manual methods give analysts the opportunity to take a first look and become familiar with the dataset. Automatic methods, on the other hand, allow to reorganize and delete unusable data.  

Data visualization tools are widely used in order to have a more global view of the dataset for a better understanding and to distinguish errors more easily. Moreover, to make this possible, the main programmatic tools used are the language R and Python. Indeed, their flexibility are highly appreciable by the data analysts.  

 

Catch up the 3 lasts steps in our next article.

© Valkuren